JOHN ADAMS
THE CATALYST OF
INDEPENDENCE
John
Adams was a Founding Father and the
second president of the United States from 1797 to 1801. Before his presidency,
he was a leader of the American Revolution that achieved independence from
Great Britain. During the latter part of the Revolutionary War and in the early
years of the new nation, he served the Continental Congress of the United
States as a senior diplomat in Europe. Adams was the first vice president of
the United States, serving from 1789 to 1797. He was a dedicated diarist and
regularly corresponded with contemporaries, including his wife and advisor
Abigail Adams and his friend and rival Thomas Jefferson.
A lawyer
and political activist prior to the Revolution, Adams was devoted to the right
to counsel and presumption of innocence. He defied anti-British sentiment and
successfully defended British soldiers against murder charges arising from the
Boston Massacre. Adams was a Massachusetts delegate to the Continental Congress
and became a leader of the revolution. He assisted Jefferson in drafting the Declaration
of Independence in 1776 and was its primary advocate in Congress. As a
diplomat, he represented the United States in France and the Netherlands during
the war. He helped negotiate the peace treaty with Great Britain, secured Dutch
loans for the American government, and was the first United States ambassador
to Great Britain. Adams was the primary author of the Massachusetts
Constitution in 1780, which, with his other political writings, influenced the
United States Constitution.
Adams was
elected to two terms as vice president under President George Washington and
was elected as the United States' second president in 1796 under the banner of
the Federalist Party. Adams's term was dominated by the issue of the French
Revolutionary Wars, and his insistence on American neutrality led to fierce
criticism from both the Jeffersonian Republicans and from some in his own
party, led by his rival Alexander Hamilton. Adams signed the controversial
Alien and Sedition Acts and built up the Army and Navy in an undeclared naval
war with France. He was the first president to reside in the White House.
In his
1800 bid for reelection to the presidency, opposition from Federalists and
accusations of despotism from Jeffersonians led to Adams losing to his vice
president and former friend, Thomas Jefferson. After his defeat, he retired to
Massachusetts. He eventually resumed his friendship with Jefferson by
initiating a continuing correspondence. John Adams died on July 4, 1826 – the
fiftieth anniversary of the adoption of the Declaration of Independence. The
Adams political family included his son John Quincy Adams, the sixth president.
Adams and his son are the only presidents of the first twelve who never owned
slaves. Most historians have favorably ranked his administration.
Adams,
who had been among the more conservative of the Founding Fathers, persistently
held that while British actions against the colonies had been wrong, open
insurrection was unwarranted and peaceful petition with the view of remaining
part of Great Britain was preferable. His ideas began to change around 1772, as
the British Crown assumed payment of the salaries of Governor Thomas Hutchinson
and his judges instead of the Massachusetts legislature. Adams wrote in the
Gazette that these measures would destroy judicial independence and place the
colonial government in closer subjugation to the Crown. After discontent among
members of the legislature, Hutchinson delivered a speech warning that
Parliament's powers over the colonies were absolute and that any resistance was
illegal. John Adams, Samuel, and Joseph Hawley drafted a resolution adopted by
the House of Representatives threatening independence as an alternative to
tyranny. The resolution argued that the colonists had never been under the sovereignty
of Parliament: their charter, as well as their allegiance, was exclusive to the
King.
Throughout
the first half of 1776, Adams grew increasingly impatient with what he
perceived to be the slow pace of declaring independence. In the Second
Continental Congress in Philadelphia, he helped push through a plan to outfit
armed ships to launch raids on enemy vessels. Later in the year, he drafted the
first set of regulations for the provisional navy. Adams drafted the preamble
to the Lee Resolution of colleague Richard Henry Lee. He developed a rapport
with delegate Thomas Jefferson of Virginia, who had been slower to support
independence but by early 1776 agreed that it was necessary.[76] On June 7,
1776, Adams seconded the Lee Resolution, which stated that the colonies were
"free and independent states."
Prior to
independence being declared, Adams organized a Committee of Five charged with
drafting a Declaration of Independence. He chose himself, Jefferson, Benjamin
Franklin, Robert R. Livingston and Roger Sherman. Jefferson thought Adams
should write the document, but Adams persuaded the committee to choose
Jefferson. Many years later, Adams recorded his reasoning to Jefferson:
"Reason first, you are a Virginian, and a Virginian ought to appear at the
head of this business. Reason second, I am obnoxious, suspected, and unpopular.
You are very much otherwise. Reason third, you can write ten times better than
I can." The Committee left no minutes, and the drafting process itself
remains uncertain. Accounts written years later by Jefferson and Adams,
although frequently cited, are often contradictory. Although the first draft
was written primarily by Jefferson, Adams assumed a major role. On July 1, the resolution was debated in
Congress. It was expected to pass, but opponents such as Dickinson made a
strong effort to oppose it. Jefferson, a poor debater, remained silent while
Adams argued for its adoption. Many years later, Jefferson hailed Adams as
"the pillar of [the Declaration's] support on the floor of Congress, [its]
ablest advocate and defender against the multifarious assaults it
encountered." On July 2, Congress officially voted for independence.
Twelve colonies voted in the affirmative, while New York abstained. Dickinson
was absent. On July 3, Adams wrote to Abigail that "yesterday was decided
the greatest question which was ever debated in America, and a greater perhaps
never was nor will be decided among men." He predicted that "[t]he
second day of July, 1776, will be the most memorable epoch in the history of
America," and would be celebrated annually. Congress approved the
Declaration of Independence on July 4.
During
the congress, Adams sat on ninety committees, chairing twenty-five, an
unmatched workload among the congressmen. As Benjamin Rush reported, he was
acknowledged "to be the first man in the House." In June 1776, Adams
became head of the Board of War and Ordnance, charged with recording the
officers in the army and their ranks, the disposition of troops throughout the
colonies, and ammunition. He was referred to as a "one man war
department," working up to eighteen-hour days and mastering the details of
raising, equipping and fielding an army under civilian control Adams functioned
as a de facto Secretary of War. He kept extensive correspondences with
Continental Army officers concerning supplies, munitions, and tactics. Adams
emphasized to them the role of discipline in keeping an army orderly. He
authored the "Plan of Treaties," laying out Congress's requirements
for a treaty with France. He was worn out by the rigor of his duties and longed
to return home. His finances were unsteady, and the money that he received as a
delegate failed to cover his expenses. However, the crisis caused by the defeat
of the American soldiers kept him at his post.
After
defeating the Continental Army at the Battle of Long Island on August 27, 1776,
British Admiral Richard Howe determined that a strategic advantage was at hand,
and requested that Congress send representatives to negotiate peace. A
delegation consisting of Adams, Franklin, and Edward Rutledge met with Howe at
the Staten Island Peace Conference on September 11. Howe's authority was
premised on the states' submission, so the parties found no common ground. When
Lord Howe stated he could view the American delegates only as British subjects,
Adams replied, "Your lordship may consider me in what light you please,
... except that of a British subject." Adams learned many years later that
his name was on a list of people specifically excluded from Howe's
pardon-granting authority. Adams was unimpressed with Howe and predicted
American success. He was able to return home to Braintree in October before
leaving in January 1777 to resume his duties in Congress.
Throughout
the intervening years, Adams served as a diplomat and negotiator for peace. He
served as America’s Vice President for two, terms. He ran for reelection in
1800 to be defeated by his friend and then rival Thomas Jefferson. He worked
his farm, wrote a book, lived to see one son die of alcoholism and the election
of another to the Presidency in 1824. His wife Abigail preceded him in death.
On July
4, 1826, the 50th anniversary of the adoption of the Declaration of
Independence, Adams died of a heart attack at Peacefield at approximately 6:20
pm. His last words included an acknowledgement of his longtime friend and
rival: "Thomas Jefferson survives." Adams was unaware that Jefferson
had died several hours before. At 90, Adams was the longest-lived US president
until Ronald Reagan surpassed him in 2001.
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